The rise and fall of green growth: Korea's energy sector experiment and its lessons for sustainable energy policy

Advanced Review

Yoon‐Hee Ha, John Byrne

Published Online: Jan 16 2019

DOI: 10.1002/wene.335

Full article on Wiley Online Library: HTML PDF

Can't access this content? Tell your librarian.

The idea of “green growth” has received international attention for more than a decade as a promising solution to a distinctly modern problem: a century of unparalleled increases in wealth based on equally unparalleled innovations in energy technology accompanied by global environmental threats such as climate change and persistent socioeconomic inequality. The green growth premise is that this problem can be solved without surrendering continued economic growth by a redirection of human effort to invent green energy technology, green energy markets, and green energy choice. Proponents have argued that green‐energy based economic growth represents a paradigm shift bringing forth sustainable and equitable relations between environment, economy, and society. The paper reviews a decade of green energy growth strategies and practices. The Korean Green Growth Initiative (KGGI) is investigated as a case study of green energy growth operationalization. Korea’s experiment was widely hailed by international bodies such as The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) for its bold attempt at paradigm shift, with the hope that, if it succeeded, countries currently on the periphery of modern development would be able to overcome conditions of poverty, environmental degradation, and political dependency. But our analysis of the Korean case questions the idea and ideology of green energy growth, demonstrating instead that KGGI was quickly coopted by the paradigm it was supposed to supplant. In this respect, one contradiction in the strategy and practice of green energy growth has been its promise to change the trajectory of modern development without requiring serious changes in modern values and ideology. This article is categorized under: Energy and Climate > Economics and Policy Energy and Development > Climate and Environment Energy and Development > Economics and Policy

Modern energy paradigm

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Achievement of major targets of Korean GEGNotes: ^aP means a principle of GEG, ^b2030 targets for “sites of utility‐scale PV power Plants” and “green jobs” were not proposed in the Korean GEG. ^cA green job indicator is available only from 2008 to 2015

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Perspective of paradigm shift of the GEGSource: OECD ()

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

References

Abbott,, K. W. (2014). Strengthening the transnational regime complex for climate change. Transnational Environmental Law, 3(1), 57–88.
Antman,, A., Brubæk,, S., Andersen,, B. H., Lindqvist,, K., Markus‐Johansson,, M., Sørensen,, J., … Teerikangas,, J. (2016). Nordic agriculture air and climate. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers.
Argyrous,, G. (1992). Kuhn`s paradigms and neoclassical economics. Economics and Philosophy, 8(2), 231–248.
Asongu,, S. A. (2017). Knowledge economy gaps, policy syndromes, and catch‐up strategies: Fresh South Korean lessons to Africa. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 8(1), 211–253.
Attar,, S., & Kazemi,, H. (2017). Economic policy and developmental regulation in South Korea. European Journal of East Asian Studies, 16(1), 67–85.
Ayling,, J., & Gunningham,, N. (2017). Non‐state governance and climate policy: The fossil fuel divestment movement. Climate Policy, 17(2), 131–149.
Barbier,, E. B. (2009). A global green new deal: Final report. Towards a Green Economy.
Basalla,, G. (1979). Energy and civilization. EPRI Journal, 4(6), 20–25.
Beermann,, J., & Tews,, K. (2017). Decentralised laboratories in the German energy transition. Why local renewable energy initiatives must reinvent themselves. Journal of Cleaner Production, 169, 125–134.
Bermudez,, V. (2018). Japan, the new “El dorado” of solar PV? Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy, 10(2), 020401.
Bina,, O. (2013). The green economy and sustainable development: An uneasy balance? Environment and Planning. C, Government %26 Policy, 31(6), 1023–1047.
Blok,, K., Höhne,, N., Van der Leun,, K., & Harrison,, N. (2012). Bridging the greenhouse‐gas emissions gap. Nature Climate Change, 2(7), 471–474.
Boo,, K., Kim,, H., & Park,, J. (Eds.). (2013). Energy policies. Seoul: Korea Development Institute.
Bratman,, E., Brunette,, K., Shelly,, D. C., & Nicholson,, S. (2016). Justice is the goal: Divestment as climate change resistance. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 6(4), 677–690.
Bulkeley,, H., & Fuller,, S. (2012). Low carbon communities and social justice. York, England: JRF.
Burke,, M. J., & Stephens,, J. C. (2018). Political power and renewable energy futures: A critical review. Energy Research %26 Social Science, 35, 78–93.
Byrne,, J., Martinez,, C., & Ruggero,, C. (2009). Relocating energy in the social commons: Ideas for a sustainable energy utility. Bulletin of Science, Technology %26 Society, 29(2), 81–94.
Byrne,, J., & Taminiau,, J. (2016). A review of sustainable energy utility and energy service utility concepts and applications: Realizing ecological and social sustainability with a community utility. WIREs Energy and Environment, 5(2), 136–154.
Byrne,, J., Taminiau,, J., Kim,, K. N., Lee,, J., & Seo,, J. (2017). Multivariate analysis of solar city economics: Impact of energy prices, policy, finance, and cost on urban photovoltaic power plant implementation. WIREs Energy and Environment, 6(4), e241.
Byrne,, J., Taminiau,, J., Kim,, K. N., Seo,, J., & Lee,, J. (2016). A solar city strategy applied to six municipalities: Integrating market, finance, and policy factors for infrastructure‐scale photovoltaic development in Amsterdam, London, Munich, New York, Seoul, and Tokyo. WIREs Energy and Environment, 5(1), 68–88.
Byrne,, J., & Toly,, N. (2006). Energy as a social project: Recovering a discourse. In J. Byrne,, N. Toly,, & L. Glover, (Eds.), Transforming power: Energy, environment and society in conflict (pp. 1–32). New York, NY: Routledge.
Byrne,, J., & Wang,, Y. (2014). Green energy economies: The search for clean and renewable energy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Cities,, E. (2016). “Think local first”: From pipe dreams to local means. A guidance paper to assist member states within the energy union governance process. Retrieved from http://www.energy-cities.eu/spip.php?page=search%26id_rubrique=%26q=%E2%80%9CTHINK+LOCAL+FIRST%E2%80%9D%3A%26ok.x=22%26ok.y=17
Conley,, T. G., & Dupor,, B. (2013). The American recovery and reinvestment act: Solely a government jobs program? Journal of Monetary Economics, 60(5), 535–549.
Cotton,, J. (1992). Understanding the state in South Korea: Bureaucratic‐authoritarian or state autonomy theory? Comparative Political Studies, 24(4), 512–531.
Cottrell,, F. (2009). Energy %26 society: The relation between energy, social change, and economic development. Bloomington, IN: Author House.
Couture,, T., & Gagnon,, Y. (2010). An analysis of feed‐in tariff remuneration models: Implications for renewable energy investment. Energy Policy, 38(2), 955–965.
Craig,, M. (2016). German renewable power surcharge increases by 8 percent. Renewable energy world. Retrieved from https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/10/german-renewable-power-surcharge-increases-by-8-percent.html
Daly,, H. E. (1991). Steady‐state economics: With new essays. Washington DC: Island Press.
Dobbs,, E., Wheldon,, A., & Sharma,, C. (2016). 15 years of development in access to off‐grid renewable electricity: Insights from the Ashden awards. Field Actions Science Reports. The Journal of Field Actions, 15(4), 150–159.
Dolfsma,, W., & Welch,, P. J. (2009). Paradigms and novelty in economics: The history of economic thought as a source of enlightenment. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 68(5), 1085–1106.
Dryzek,, J. S. (2013). The politics of the earth: Environmental discourses. Oxford: Oxford University press.
DW. (2018). German green energy surcharge rises to record. Retrieved from https://www.dw.com/en/german-green-energy-surcharge-rises-to-record/a-36040052
Ellul,, J. (1964). The technological society. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
Enerdata. (2017). Global energy statistical yearbook 2017. Enerdata. Retrieved from https://www.enerdata.net/publications/world-energy-statistics-supply-and-demand.html
Escobar,, A. (1999). After nature: Steps to an antiessentialist political ecology. Current Anthropology, 40(1), 1–30.
European Commission. (2018). 2020 climate %26 energy package. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2020_en
Fay,, M. (2012). Inclusive green growth: The pathway to sustainable development. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.
Feldstein,, M. (1998). Refocusing the IMF. Foreign Affairs‐New York, 77, 20–33.
Flyvbjerg,, B. (1998). Rationality and power: Democracy in practice. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Glover,, L. (2006). From love‐ins to logos: Charting the demise of renewable energy as a social movement. In J. Byrne,, N. Toly,, & L. Glover, (Eds.), Transforming power: Energy, environment, and Society in Conflict (p. 247). New York, NY: Routledge.
Goldemberg,, J., Johansson,, T. B., Reddy,, A. K., & Williams,, R. H. (1987). Energy for a sustainable world. Washington DC: World Resources Institute.
Goldthau,, A. (2014). Rethinking the governance of energy infrastructure: Scale, decentralization and polycentrism. Energy Research %26 Social Science, 1, 134–140.
Gouldson,, A., & Murphy,, J. (1997). Ecological modernisation: Restructuring industrial economies. The Political Quarterly, 68(B), 74–86.
Green Technology Center. (2014). Statistics yearbook 2013 of green technology R%26D. Seoul: Green Technology Center.
Green Technology Center. (2015). Green technology development level 2015. Seoul: Green Technology Center.
Hall,, C. A., Cleveland,, C. J., & Kaufmann,, R. K. (1986). Energy and resource quality: The ecology of the economic process. Niwot, Colo: University Press of Colorado.
Han,, H. (2015). Korea`s pursuit of low‐carbon green growth: A middle‐power state`s dream of becoming a green pioneer. The Pacific Review, 28(5), 731–754.
Hendriks,, C. M. (2008). On inclusion and network governance: The democratic disconnect of Dutch energy transitions. Public Administration, 86(4), 1009–1031.
Huber,, J. (2008). Pioneer countries and the global diffusion of environmental innovations: Theses from the viewpoint of ecological modernisation theory. Global Environmental Change, 18(3), 360–367.
Hughes,, T. P. (1993). Networks of power: Electrification in Western society, 1880–1930. Baltimore: JHU Press.
Jacobs,, M. (2012). Green growth: Economic theory and political discourse (Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper No. 108).
Jakob,, M., & Hilaire,, J. (2015). Climate science: Unburnable fossil‐fuel reserves. Nature, 517(7533), 150–151.
Jänicke,, M. (2005). Trend‐setters in environmental policy: The character and role of pioneer countries. European Environment, 15(2), 129–142.
Jänicke,, M. (2008). Ecological modernisation: New perspectives. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16(5), 557–565.
Jänicke,, M. (2012). “Green growth”: From a growing eco‐industry to economic sustainability. Energy Policy, 48, 13–21.
Jänicke,, M., & Jacob,, K. (2005). Ecological modernisation and the creation of lead markets. Towards environmental innovation systems. In M. Weber, & J. Hemmelskamp, (Eds.), Towards environmental innovation systems (pp. 175–193). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
Jänicke,, M., & Jacob,, K. (2009). A third industrial revolution? Solutions to the crisis of resource‐intensive growth. Berlin, Germany: FFU.
Jones,, R. S., & Yoo,, B. (2011). Korea`s green growth strategy: Mitigating climate change and developing new growth engines (OECD Economics Department Working Paper No. 18151973).
Jung,, H., & Park,, K. (2010). A comprehensive study on building a market‐friendly energy price system. Seoul: Korea Energy Economic Institute.
Jwa,, S. (2017). Reproducibility of the Korean economic miracle. In The rise and fall of Korea`s economic development (pp. 129–133). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
Kammen,, D. M., & Engel,, D. (2009). Green jobs and the clean energy economy. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Climate Council.
KERI. (2010). Amendment of the Korean feed‐in‐tariffs in 2011. Changwon, Korea: KERI.
Khalil,, E. (1987). Kuhn, Lakatos, and the history of economic thought. International Journal of Social Economics, 14(3/4/5), 118–131.
Khavul,, S., & Bruton,, G. D. (2013). Harnessing innovation for change: Sustainability and poverty in developing countries. Journal of Management Studies, 50(2), 285–306.
Kim,, D. (1999). IMF bailout and financial and corporate restructuring in the Republic of Korea. The Developing Economies, 37(4), 460–513.
Kim,, K. (2006). The 1997–98 Korean financial crisis: Causes, policy response, and lessons. Paper presented at the IMF Seminar on Crisis Prevention in Emerging Markets, Singapore.
Kim,, N., & Kim,, J. (2013). Income inequality in Korea, 1933‐2010 evidence from income tax statistics. (Working Paper No. 2013‐05).
Kim,, S., & Ko,, J. (2013). Energy efficiency gap of ESCO projects and policy measures. GRI Research Collections, 15(3), 337–364.
Kim,, S., & Thurbon,, E. (2015). Developmental environmentalism: Explaining South Korea`s ambitious pursuit of green growth. Politics and Society, 43(2), 213–240.
Kim,, Y. (2016). An analysis of economic factors on changes in GHG reduction plan. Korea Energy Economic Review, 15(1), 139–177.
K‐indicator. (2018, October 2). Retrieved from http://www.index.go.kr/unify/idx-info.do?idxCd=9009
Koirala,, B. P., Koliou,, E., Friege,, J., Hakvoort,, R. A., & Herder,, P. M. (2016). Energetic communities for community energy: A review of key issues and trends shaping integrated community energy systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 56, 722–744.
Kong,, T. Y. (2013). The politics of economic reform in South Korea: A fragile miracle. Florence: Taylor and Francis.
Korea Environment Institute. (2013). A study on the future social vision for climate change and energy policy paradigm change. Seoul: Korea Environment Institute.
Korea Institute of Public Finance. (2012). History of tax system in Korea; History and assessment by category: Consumption taxes and custom duties. Seoul: Korea Institute of Public Finance.
Kuhn,, T. S. (1963). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Lee,, S. (2017). A start and an end of Gori nuclear power plants reactor #1. Hangyoreh21. Retrieved from http://h21.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/43765.html
Lee,, S. (2018). Communication strategies for improving public acceptability of changing electricity prices following new environment and energy policies. Environmental Policy, 26(1), 223–245.
Levin,, K., Cashore,, B., Bernstein,, S., & Auld,, G. (2012). Overcoming the tragedy of super wicked problems: Constraining our future selves to ameliorate global climate change. Policy Sciences, 45(2), 123–152.
Lie,, J. (1990). Is Korean management just like Japanese management? Management International Review, 30(2), 113.
Lorek,, S., & Spangenberg,, J. H. (2014). Sustainable consumption within a sustainable economy–beyond green growth and green economies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 63, 33–44.
Lovins,, A. B. (1979). Soft energy paths: Toward a durable peace. New York, NY: Harper %26 Row.
Lucas,, R. E., Jr. (1993). Making a miracle. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 61(2), 251–272.
Lunb,, R., & Panda,, S. M. (1994). The role of gender in the quest for sustainable agricultural development. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, 48(3), 113–122.
Martínez‐Alier,, J., Pascual,, U., Vivien,, F., & Zaccai,, E. (2010). Sustainable de‐growth: Mapping the context, criticisms and future prospects of an emergent paradigm. Ecological Economics, 69(9), 1741–1747.
Mathews,, J. A. (2012). Green growth strategies—Korean initiatives. Futures, 44(8), 761–769.
McCright,, A. M., & Nichols Clark,, T. (2006). Dimensions of local sustainability. In A. Moller,, T. Clark,, & A. McCright, (Eds.), Community and ecology (pp. 87–91). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
McDonagh,, E. L. (1976). Attitude changes and paradigm shifts: Social psychological foundations of the Kuhnian thesis. Social Studies of Science, 6(1), 51–76.
Messing,, M., Friesema,, H. P., & Morell,, D. (1979). Centralized power: The politics of scale in electricity generation. Cambridge, Mass: Oelgeschlager, Gunn %26 Hain.
Morgan,, G. (1980). Paradigms, metaphors, and puzzle solving in organization theory. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 605–622.
Moss,, L. S. (2013). Joseph A. Schumpeter: Historian of economics: Perspectives on the history of economic thought. Hoboken: Routledge.
MOTIE %26 KEEI. (2017). Korea energy statistics yearbook 2017. Sejong, Korea: MOTIE %26 KEEI.
Mundaca,, L., & Richter,, J. L. (2015). Assessing ‘green energy economy’ stimulus packages: Evidence from the US programs targeting renewable energy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 42, 1174–1186.
NEI. (2018, May 16). Retrieved from www.nei.org
Numminen,, S., & Lund,, P. D. (2017). Frugal energy innovations for developing countries–a framework. Global Challenges, 1(1), 9–19.
Nye,, D. E. (1999). Consuming power: A social history of American energies. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
OECD. (2009). Declaration on green growth. Adopted at the meeting of the council at the ministerial level. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/env/44077822.pdf
OECD. (2011a). Towards green growth. Paris, France: OECD.
OECD. (2011b). OECD green growth studies: Energy. Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2018, April 18). Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/china/greengrowthinactionchina.html
OECD/IEA. (2017). Energy prices and taxes 2017. Paris, France: OECD/IEA.
Ostrom,, E. (2010). Beyond markets and states: Polycentric governance of complex economic systems. American Economic Review, 100(3), 641–672.
Pachauri,, R. K., Allen,, M. R., Barros,, V. R., Broome,, J., Cramer,, W., Christ,, R., … Dasgupta,, P. (2014). Climate change 2014: Synthesis report. Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC.
Pack,, H., & Nelson,, R. R. (1999). The Asian miracle and modern growth theory. Washington DC: The World Bank.
Park,, B. (2003). Territorialized party politics and the politics of local economic development: Stateled industrialization and political regionalism in South Korea. Political Geography, 22(8), 811–839.
Park,, K. (2011). Issues on energy price system and its direction for improvement. Korea Energy Economic Review, 10(2), 142.
Pattberg,, P. H. (2007). Conquest, domination and control: Europe`s mastery of nature in historical perspective. Journal of Political Ecology, 14, 1–9.
Piggot,, G. (2018). The influence of social movements on policies that constrain fossil fuel supply. Climate Policy, 18(7), 942–954.
Renewable Energy Institute. (2017). Feed‐in tariffs in Japan: Five years of achievements and future challenges. Tokyo, Japan: REI.
Saunders,, R. W., Gross,, R., & Wade,, J. (2012). Can premium tariffs for micro‐generation and small‐scale renewable heat help the fuel poor, and if so, how? Case studies of innovative finance for community energy schemes in the UK. Energy Policy, 42, 78–88.
Schmalensee,, R. (2012). From “green growth” to sound policies: An overview. Energy Economics, 34, S6.
Schmidt,, D., & Heilmann,, S. (2010). Dealing with economic crisis in 2008‐09: The Chinese government`s crisis management in comparative perspective. China Analysis, 77, 1–24.
Schneidewind,, D. K., Schneidewind,, D. K., & Schneidewind,, D. (2016). Economic miracle market South Korea. Singapore: Springer.
Schulz,, C., & Bailey,, I. (2014). The green economy and post‐growth regimes: Opportunities and challenges for economic geography. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, 96(3), 277–291.
Schumpeter,, J. A. (1939). Business cycles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Selectra. (2018, March 15). Retrieved from https://selectra.info/energie/guides/demarches/tarifs-sociaux
Simon,, D. (1989). Sustainable development: Theoretical construct or attainable goal? Environmental Conservation, 16(1), 41–48.
Sonnenschein,, J., & Mundaca,, L. (2016). Decarbonization under green growth strategies? The case of South Korea. Journal of Cleaner Production, 123, 180–193.
Späth,, P., & Rohracher,, H. (2010). ‘Energy regions’: The transformative power of regional discourses on socio‐technical futures. Research Policy, 39(4), 449–458.
Stiglitz,, J. E. (1996). Some lessons from the east Asian miracle. The World Bank Research Observer, 11(2), 151–177.
Stirling,, A. (2014). Transforming power: Social science and the politics of energy choices. Energy Research %26 Social Science, 1, 83–95.
Stocker,, T. F., Qin,, D., Plattner,, G., Tignor,, M., Allen,, S. K., Boschung,, J., … Midgley,, P. (2013). IPCC, 2013: Summary for policymakers in climate change 2013: The physical science basis, contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment. Report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC.
Sun,, P., & Nie,, P. (2015). A comparative study of feed‐in tariff and renewable portfolio standard policy in renewable energy industry. Renewable Energy, 74, 255–262.
Taminiau,, J. (2015). A paradigm analysis of ecological sustainability. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Delaware, Newark, DE.
The Korea Presidential Committee on Green Growth. (2009). A five‐year plan for green growth (2009–2013). Seoul: The Korea Presidential Committee on Green Growth.
The Korea Presidential Committee on Green Growth. (2011a). Korea`s green growth strategy: A Korean approach to green growth. Seoul: The Korea Presidential Committee on Green Growth.
The Korea Presidential Committee on Green Growth. (2011b). Road map for building low carbon green society 2020: Finalization of greenhouse‐gas reduction target by sector, industry, and year. Seoul: The Korea Presidential Committee on Green Growth.
The Korea Presidential Committee on Green Growth. (2012). An update on Korea`s green growth progress and prospects. Seoul: The Korea Presidential Committee on Green Growth.
The Korean Government. (2008a). The Korea 1st national energy master plan 2008–2030. Seoul: The Korean Government.
The Korean Government. (2008b). The president`s speech at the national ceremony celebrating the 60th anniversary of the country`s foundation. Seoul: The Korean Government.
The Korean Government. (2008c). The Korea 4th basic plan on electricity demand and supply (2008~2022). Seoul: The Korean Government.
The Korean Government. (2012). The detailed operation plan of the electrical industry foundation fund (fiscal year 2011). Seoul: The Korean Government.
Tompkins,, E. L., & Adger,, W. N. (2005). Defining response capacity to enhance climate change policy. Environmental Science %26 Policy, 8(6), 562–571.
UNEP. (2011). Towards a green economy: Pathways to sustainable development and poverty eradication. St‐Martin‐Bellevue, France: United Nations Environment Programme.
Weinrub,, A., & Giancatarino,, A. (2015). Toward a climate justice energy platform: Democratizing our energy future. Oakland, CA: Local Clean Energy Alliance %26 Center for Social Inclusion.
Willmott,, H. (1993). Breaking the paradigm mentality. Organization Studies, 14(5), 681–719.
World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our common future. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
Yeo,, Y. (2015). Petroleum 135 years, historic record in Korea. Seoul, South Korea: Knowledge and Sensibility.
Yu,, G., & Rowley,, C. (2009). The changing face of Korean human resource management. In G. Yu, & C. Rowley, (Eds.), The changing face of Korean management (pp. 29–51). London: Taylor and Francis Group.
Yun,, J. (2012). Safety for the stable electric power supply. Paper presented at the Kosco Symposium (pp. 163–165). Pohang: Korea.
Yun,, T., & Park,, K. (2016). Estimation of population in energy poverty and analysis of energy consumption characteristics. Ulsan, Korea: Korea Energy Economics Institute.
Zeschky,, M., Widenmayer,, B., & Gassmann,, O. (2011). Frugal innovation in emerging markets. Research‐Technology Management, 54(4), 38–45.
Zoboli,, R., Paleari,, S., Speck,, S., & Asquith,, M. (2013). Towards a green economy in Europe. EU environmental policy targets and objectives 2010–2050 (pp. 1–48). Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.

Access to this WIREs title is by subscription only.

Recommend to Your
Librarian Now!

The rise and fall of green growth: Korea's energy sector experiment and its lessons for sustainable energy policy

Browse by Topic

Access to this WIREs title is by subscription only.

The latest WIREs articles in your inbox