How to cite this WIREs title:
WIREs Water

Impact Factor: 4.412

The importance of landscape diversity for carbon fluxes at the landscape level: small‐scale heterogeneity matters

Focus Article

Katrin Premke, Katrin Attermeyer, Jürgen Augustin, Alvaro Cabezas, Peter Casper, Detlef Deumlich, Jörg Gelbrecht, Horst H. Gerke, Arthur Gessler, Hans‐Peter Grossart, Sabine Hilt, Michael Hupfer, Thomas Kalettka, Zachary Kayler, Gunnar Lischeid, Michael Sommer, Dominik Zak

Published Online: Apr 07 2016

DOI: 10.1002/wat2.1147

Full article on Wiley Online Library: HTML PDF

Can't access this content? Tell your librarian.

Landscapes can be viewed as spatially heterogeneous areas encompassing terrestrial and aquatic domains. To date, most landscape carbon (C) fluxes have been estimated by accounting for terrestrial ecosystems, while aquatic ecosystems have been largely neglected. However, a robust assessment of C fluxes on the landscape scale requires the estimation of fluxes within and between both landscape components. Here, we compiled data from the literature on C fluxes across the air–water interface from various landscape components. We simulated C emissions and uptake for five different scenarios which represent a gradient of increasing spatial heterogeneity within a temperate young moraine landscape: (I) a homogeneous landscape with only cropland and large lakes; (II) separation of the terrestrial domain into cropland and forest; (III) further separation into cropland, forest, and grassland; (IV) additional division of the aquatic area into large lakes and peatlands; and (V) further separation of the aquatic area into large lakes, peatlands, running waters, and small water bodies These simulations suggest that C fluxes at the landscape scale might depend on spatial heterogeneity and landscape diversity, among other factors. When we consider spatial heterogeneity and diversity alone, small inland waters appear to play a pivotal and previously underestimated role in landscape greenhouse gas emissions that may be regarded as C hot spots. Approaches focusing on the landscape scale will also enable improved projections of ecosystems’ responses to perturbations, e.g., due to global change and anthropogenic activities, and evaluations of the specific role individual landscape components play in regional C fluxes. WIREs Water 2016, 3:601–617. doi: 10.1002/wat2.1147 This article is categorized under: Water and Life > Nature of Freshwater Ecosystems Science of Water > Water and Environmental Change Science of Water > Water Quality

Mean estimated CO₂‐C and fluxes of the moraine landscape in NE Germany for the five different scenarios given (a–e). C‐data based on the CO₂‐C fluxes documented in Table S1. The estimates take the relative areal coverage (GIS data) of the individual categories in the catchment into account. (f) The total flux of the entire landscape for the different scenarios.

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Broad graphic representation of the land use scenarios S‐I to S‐V for the Quillow catchment based on the biotope mapping of the Federal States of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg‐Vorpommern, GIS data (Landesamt für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Geologie, 1994). Scenarios show an increase in diversity and resolution: S‐I forms a homogeneous landscape by using only cropland for the terrestrial domain and large lakes for the aquatic domain. S‐II is the terrestrial area divided into croplands and forest lands. S‐III is a further split of the terrestrial area into croplands, forest lands and grasslands. S‐IV includes the partitioning of the aquatic domain into large lakes and peatlands, and in S‐V, the aquatic area is further divided into large lakes, peatlands, rivers and small inland waters. For landscape compartment area percentages see Table . Peatlands are only considered drained because the area is known to host 95% of its peatlands in a drained state.

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

The Quillow catchment (290 km²) in NE Germany: a 3D relief image derived from a high‐resolution digital elevation model (DEM1); blue to red: increase in elevation from 15 to 125 m a.s.l.; inset: Germany, Quillow catchment, simulated area, landscape segment with a high density of lakes and kettle holes.

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

(a) Image of the moraine landscape in NE Germany. Rape field with several small water bodies (kettle holes) embedded in the cropland (Image courtesy: G. Verch). (b) Instrumented kettle hole near Rittgarten, Uckermark. The kettle hole is part of the longer‐term studies of the LandScales project (Image courtesy: Garabet Kazanjian).

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Mean estimated and CH₄‐C fluxes of the moraine landscape in NE Germany for the five different scenarios given (a–e). C‐data based on the CH₄‐C fluxes documented in Table S1. The estimates account for the relative areal coverage (GIS data) of the individual categories in the catchment. (f) The total flux of the entire landscape for the different scenarios.

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

References

Janssens, IA, Freibauer, A, Ciais, P, Smith, P, Nabuurs, GJ, Folberth, G, Schlamadinger, B, Hutjes, RWA, Ceulemans, R, Schulze, ED, et al. Europe`s terrestrial biosphere absorbs 7 to 12% of European anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Science 2003, 300:1538–1542.
Heimann, M, Reichstein, M. Terrestrial ecosystem carbon dynamics and climate feedbacks. Nature 2008, 451:289–292.
Riebesell, U, Schulz, KG, Bellerby, RGJ, Botros, M, Fritsche, P, Meyerhoefer, M, Neill, C, Nondal, G, Oschlies, A, Wohlers, J, et al. Enhanced biological carbon consumption in a high CO2 ocean. Nature 2007, 450:545–U510.
Frolking, S, Talbot, J, Jones, MC, Treat, CC, Kauffman, JB, Tuittila, E‐S, Roulet, N. Peatlands in the Earth`s 21st century climate system. Environ Rev 2011, 19:371–396.
Respiration in aquatic ecosystems: from single cells to the biosphere. In: del Giorgio, PA, Williams, PJleB, eds. Respiration in Aquatic Ecosystems, Oxford University Press; 2005, 315 pp. ISBN 0-19-852708-X.
IPCC. Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 2014.
Rebmann, C, Gockede, M, Foken, T, Aubinet, M, Aurela, M, Berbigier, P, Bernhofer, C, Buchmann, N, Carrara, A, Cescatti, A, et al. Quality analysis applied on eddy covariance measurements at complex forest sites using footprint modelling. Theor Appl Climatol 2005, 80:121–141.
Sulman, BN, Desai, AR, Cook, BD, Saliendra, N, Mackay, DS. Contrasting carbon dioxide fluxes between a drying shrub wetland in Northern Wisconsin, USA, and nearby forests. Biogeosciences 2009, 6:1115–1126.
Kirkels, FMSA, Cammeraat, LH, Kuhn, NJ. The fate of soil organic carbon upon erosion, transport and deposition in agricultural landscapes: a review of different concepts. Geomorphology 2014, 226:94–105.
Clay, GD, Worrall, F, Aebischer, NJ. Carbon stocks and carbon fluxes from a 10‐year prescribed burning chronosequence on a UK blanket peat. Soil Use Manage 2015, 31:39–51.
Hanson, PC, Pace, ML, Carpenter, SR, Cole, JJ, Stanley, EH. Integrating landscape carbon cycling: research needs for resolving organic carbon budgets of lakes. Ecosystems 2015, 18:363–375.
Baldocchi, DD, Krebs, T, Leclerc, MJ. "Wet/dry Daisyworld": a conceptual tool for quantifying the spatial scaling of heterogenous landscapes and its impact on the subgrid variability of energy fluxes. Tellus 2005, 57B:175–188.
Tranvik, LJ, Downing, JA, Cotner, JB, Loiselle, SA, Striegl, RG, Ballatore, TJ, Dillon, P, Finlay, K, Fortino, K, Knoll, LB, et al. Lakes and reservoirs as regulators of carbon cycling and climate. Limnol Oceanogr 2009, 54:2298–2314.
Buffam, I, Turner, MG, Desai, AR, Hanson, PC, Rusak, JA, Lottig, NR, Stanley, EH, Carpenter, SR. Integrating aquatic and terrestrial components to construct a complete carbon budget for a north temperate lake district. Glob Chang Biol 2011, 17:1193–1211.
Aufdenkampe, AK, Mayorga, E, Raymond, PA, Melack, JM, Doney, SC, Alin, SR, Aalto, RE, Yoo, K. Riverine coupling of biogeochemical cycles between land, oceans, and atmosphere. Front Ecol Environ 2011, 9:53–60.
Raymond, PA, Hartmann, J, Lauerwald, R, Sobek, S, McDonald, C, Hoover, M, Butman, D, Striegl, R, Mayorga, E, Humborg, C, et al. Global carbon dioxide emissions from inland waters. Nature 2013, 503:355–359.
Attermeyer, K, Premke, K, Hornick, T, Hilt, S, Grossart, H‐P. Ecosystem‐level studies of terrestrial carbon reveal contrasting bacterial metabolism in different aquatic habitats. Ecology 2013, 94:2754–2766.
Kortelainen, NM, Karhu, JA. Tracing the decomposition of dissolved organic carbon in artificial groundwater recharge using carbon isotope ratios. Appl Geochem 2006, 21:547–562.
Scharnweber, K, Vanni, MJ, Hilt, S, Syvaeranta, J, Mehner, T. Boomerang ecosystem fluxes: organic carbon inputs from land to lakes are returned to terrestrial food webs via aquatic insects. Oikos 2014, 123:1439–1448.
Premke, K, Karlsson, J, Steger, K, Gudasz, C, von Wachenfeldt, E, Tranvik, LJ. Stable isotope analysis of benthic fauna and their food sources in boreal lakes. J North Am Benthological Soc 2010, 29:1339–1348.
Brothers, SM, Hilt, S, Attermeyer, K, Grossart, HP, Kosten, S, Lischke, B, Mehner, T, Meyer, N, Scharnweber, K, Koehler, J. A regime shift from macrophyte to phytoplankton dominance enhances carbon burial in a shallow, eutrophic lake. Ecosphere 2013, 4:1–17.
Frielinghaus, M, Vahrson, WG. Soil translocation by water erosion from agricultural cropland into wet depressions (morainic kettle holes). Soil Till Res 1998, 46:23–30.
Sobek, S, Tranvik, LJ, Prairie, YT, Kortelainen, P, Cole, JJ. Patterns and regulation of dissolved organic carbon: an analysis of 7,500 widely distributed lakes. Limnol Oceanogr 2007, 52:1208–1219.
Downing, JA, Cole, JJ, Middelburg, JJ, Striegl, RG, Duarte, CM, Kortelainen, P, Prairie, YT, Laube, KA. Sediment organic carbon burial in agriculturally eutrophic impoundments over the last century. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2008, 22. doi: 10.1029/2006GB002854.
del Giorgio, PA, Cole, JJ, Caraco, NF, Peters, RH. Linking planktonic biomass and metabolism to net gas fluxes in northern temperate lakes. Ecology 1999, 80:1422–1431.
Marce, R, Obrador, B, Morgui, J‐A, Lluis Riera, J, Lopez, P, Armengol, J. Carbonate weathering as a driver of CO2 supersaturation in lakes. Nat Geosci 2015, 8:107–111.
Cole, JJ, Prairie, YT, Caraco, NF, McDowell, WH, Tranvik, LJ, Striegl, RG, Duarte, CM, Kortelainen, P, Downing, JA, Middelburg, JJ, et al. Plumbing the global carbon cycle: integrating inland waters into the terrestrial carbon budget. Ecosystems 2007, 10:171–184.
St Louis, VL, Kelly, CA, Duchemin, E, Rudd, JWM, Rosenberg, DM. Reservoir surfaces as sources of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere: a global estimate. Bioscience 2000, 50:766–775.
Downing, JA, Prairie, YT, Cole, JJ, Duarte, CM, Tranvik, LJ, Striegl, RG, McDowell, WH, Kortelainen, P, Caraco, NF, Melack, JM, et al. The global abundance and size distribution of lakes, ponds, and impoundments. Limnol Oceanogr 2006, 51:2388–2397.
Riera, JL, Schindler, JE, Kratz, TK. Seasonal dynamics of carbon dioxide and methane in two clear‐water lakes and two bog lakes in northern Wisconsin, USA. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 1999, 56:265–274.
Bastviken, D, Cole, J, Pace, M, Tranvik, L. Methane emissions from lakes: dependence of lake characteristics, two regional assessments, and a global estimate. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2004, 18. doi:10.1029/2004GB002238.
Curtis, PS, Hanson, PJ, Bolstad, P, Barford, C, Randolph, JC, Schmid, HP, Wilson, KB. Biometric and eddy‐covariance based estimates of annual carbon storage in five eastern North American deciduous forests. Agr Forest Meteorol 2002, 113:3–19.
Luyssaert, S, Ciais, P, Piao, SL, Schulze, ED, Jung, M, Zaehle, S, Schelhaas, MJ, Reichstein, M, Churkina, G, Papale, D, et al. The European carbon balance. Part 3: forests. Glob Chang Biol 2010, 16:1429–1450.
Teepe, R, Brumme, R, Beese, F, Ludwig, B. Nitrous oxide emission and methane consumption following compaction of forest soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 2004, 68:605–611.
Guckland, A, Flessa, H, Prenzel, J. Controls of temporal and spatial variability of methane uptake in soils of a temperate deciduous forest with different abundance of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) Soil Biol Biochem 2009, 41:1659–1667.
Ammann, C, Flechard, CR, Leifeld, J, Neftel, A, Fuhrer, J. The carbon budget of newly established temperate grassland depends on management intensity. Agr Ecosyst Environ 2007, 121:5–20.
Ambus, P, Christensen, S. Spatial and seasonal nitrous‐oxide and methane fluxes in Danish forest: ecosystems, grassland‐ecosystems, and agroecosystems. J Environ Qual 1995, 24:993–1001.
Andersson, E, Sobek, S. Comparison of a mass balance and an ecosystem model approach when evaluating the carbon cycling in a lake ecosystem. Ambio 2006, 35:476–483.
Armstrong, A, Holden, J, Kay, P, Francis, B, Foulger, M, Gledhill, S, McDonald, AT, Walker, A. The impact of peatland drain‐blocking on dissolved organic carbon loss and discolouration of water; results from a national survey. J Hydrol 2010, 381:112–120.
Bergstrom, AK, Algesten, G, Sobek, S, Tranvik, L, Jansson, M. Emission of CO2 from hydroelectric reservoirs in northern Sweden. Archiv Fur Hydrobiologie 2004, 159:25–42.
Berhe, AA, Harte, J, Harden, JW, Torn, MS. The significance of the erosion‐induced terrestrial carbon sink. Bioscience 2007, 57:337–346.
Billett, MF, Palmer, SM, Hope, D, Deacon, C, Storeton‐West, R, Hargreaves, KJ, Flechard, C, Fowler, D. Linking land‐atmosphere‐stream carbon fluxes in a lowland peatland system. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2004, 18. doi: 10.1029/2003GB002058.
Blodau, C, Moore, TR. Experimental response of peatland carbon dynamics to a water table fluctuation. Aquat Sci 2003, 65:47–62.
Borken, W, Xu, YJ, Beese, F. Conversion of hardwood forests to spruce and pine plantations strongly reduced soil methane sink in Germany. Glob Chang Biol 2003, 9:956–966.
Borken, W, Xu, YJ, Brumme, R, Lamersdorf, N. A climate change scenario for carbon dioxide and dissolved organic carbon fluxes from a temperate forest soil: drought and rewetting effects. Soil Sci Soc Am J 1999, 63:1848–1855.
Brumme, R, Borken, W, Finke, S. Hierarchical control on nitrous oxide emission in forest ecosystems. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1999, 13:1137–1148.
Butterbach‐Bahl, K, Papen, H. Four years continuous record of CH(4)‐exchange between the atmosphere and untreated and limed soil of a N‐saturated spruce and beech forest ecosystem in Germany. Plant and Soil 2002, 240:77–90.
Casper, P, Maberly, SC, Hall, GH, Finlay, BJ. Fluxes of methane and carbon dioxide from a small productive lake to the atmosphere. Biogeochemistry 2000, 49:1–19.
Christensen, TR, Panikov, N, Mastepanov, M, Joabsson, A, Stewart, A, Oquist, M, Sommerkorn, M, Reynaud, S, Svensson, B. Biotic controls on CO2 and CH4 exchange in wetlands: a closed environment study. Biogeochemistry 2003, 64:337–354.
Ciais, P, Wattenbach, M, Vuichard, N, Smith, P, Piao, SL, Don, A, Luyssaert, S, Janssens, IA, Bondeau, A, Dechow, R, et al. The European carbon balance. Part 2: croplands. Glob Chang Biol 2010, 16:1409–1428.
Demarty, M, Bastien, J. GHG emissions from hydroelectric reservoirs in tropical and equatorial regions: review of 20 years of CH4 emission measurements. Energy Policy 2011, 39:4197–4206.
Demarty, M, Bastien, J, Tremblay, A. Annual follow‐up of gross diffusive carbon dioxide and methane emissions from a boreal reservoir and two nearby lakes in Quebec, Canada. Biogeosciences 2011, 8:41–53.
Dinsmore, KJ, Billett, MF, Skiba, UM, Rees, RM, Drewer, J, Helfter, C. Role of the aquatic pathway in the carbon and greenhouse gas budgets of a peatland catchment. Glob Chang Biol 2010, 16:2750–2762.
Dobbie, KE, Smith, KA. Comparison of CH4 oxidation rates in woodland, arable and set aside soils. Soil Biol Biochem 1996, 28:1357–1365.
Dong, Y, Scharffe, D, Lobert, JM, Crutzen, PJ, Sanhueza, E. Fluxes of CO(2), CH(4) and N(2)O from a temperate forest soil: the effects of leaves and humus layers. Tellus 1998, 50:243–252.
Fraser, CJD, Roulet, NT, Moore, TR. Hydrology and dissolved organic carbon biogeochemistry in an ombrotrophic bog. Hydrol Processes 2001, 15:3151–3166.
Funk, DW, Pullman, ER, Peterson, KM, Crill, PM, Billings, WD. Influence of water‐table on carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and methane fluxes from Taiga bog microcosms. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1994, 8:271–278.
Gibson, HS, Worrall, F, Burt, TP, Adamson, JK. DOC budgets of drained peat catchments: implications for DOC production in peat soils. Hydrol Processes 2009, 23:1901–1911.
Gleason, RA, Tangen, BA, Browne, BA, Euliss, NH. Greenhouse gas flux from cropland and restored wetlands in the Prairie Pothole Region. Soil Biol Biochem 2009, 41:2501–2507.
Goldman, MB, Groffman, PM, Pouyat, RV, McDonnell, MJ, Pickett, STA. Uptake and N availabilty in forest soils along urban to rural gradient. Soil Biol Biochem 1995, 27:281–286.
Gough, CM, Vogel, CS, Schmid, HP, Su, HB, Curtis, PS. Multi‐year convergence of biometric and meteorological estimates of forest carbon storage. Agr Forest Meteorol 2008, 148:158–170.
Hamilton, JD, Kelly, CA, Rudd, JWM, Hesslein, RH, Roulet, NT. Flux to the atmosphere of CH4 and CO2 from wetland ponds on the Hudson‐Bay lowlands. J Geophys Res Atmos 1994, 99:1495–1510.
Helie, JFH‐MC. Greenhouse gas emissions — fluxes and processes. In: Tremblay, A, Varfalvy, L, Roehm, C, Garneau, M, eds. Hydroelectric Reservoirs and Natural Environments. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2005. ISBN 978-3-540-26643-3, doi 10.1007/978-3-540-26643-3.
Hellebrand, J, Kalk, WD, Scholz, W. Kohlenstoffdioxid‐ und Methanflussraten sandiger Böden. In: Landbauforschung Völkenrode SH. Braunschweig: Landbauforschung Völkenrode; 2005, 280: 121–130.
Hendriks, DMD, van Huissteden, J, Dolman, AJ, van der Molen, MK. The full greenhouse gas balance of an abandoned peat meadow. Biogeosciences 2007, 4:411–424.
Hopkins, DW, Waite, IS, McNicol, JW, Poulton, PR, Macdonald, AJ, O`Donnell, AG. Soil organic carbon contents in long‐term experimental grassland plots in the UK (Palace Leas and Park Grass) have not changed consistently in recent decades. Glob Chang Biol 2009, 15:1739–1754.
Hussain, MZ, Gruenwald, T, Tenhunen, JD, Li, YL, Mirzae, H, Bernhofer, C, Otieno, D, Dinh, NQ, Schmidt, M, Wartinger, M, et al. Summer drought influence on CO2 and water fluxes of extensively managed grassland in Germany. Agr Ecosyst Environ 2011, 141:67–76.
Huttunen, JT, Vaisanen, TS, Heikkinen, M, Hellsten, S, Nykanen, H, Nenonen, O, Martikainen, PJ. Exchange of CO2, CH4 and N2O between the atmosphere and two northern boreal ponds with catchments dominated by peatlands or forests. Plant and Soil 2002, 242:137–146.
Jones, MB, Donnelly, A. Carbon sequestration in temperate grassland ecosystems and the influence of management, climate and elevated CO(2). New Phytol 2004, 164:423–439.
Juutinen, S, Alm, J, Larmola, T, Saarnio, S, Martikainen, PJ, Silvola, J. Stand‐specific diurnal dynamics of CH4 fluxes in boreal lakes: patterns and controls. J Geophys Res Atmos 2004, 109. doi: 10.1029/2004JD004782.
Juutinen, S, Rantakari, M, Kortelainen, P, Huttunen, JT, Larmola, T, Alm, J, Silvola, J, Martikainen, PJ. Methane dynamics in different boreal lake types. Biogeosciences 2009, 6:209–223.
Kindler, R, Siemens, J, Kaiser, K, Walmsley, DC, Bernhofer, C, Buchmann, N, Cellier, P, Eugster, W, Gleixner, G, Grunwald, T, et al. Dissolved carbon leaching from soil is a crucial component of the net ecosystem carbon balance. Glob Chang Biol 2011, 17:1167–1185.
Kling, GW, Kipphut, GW, Miller, MC. Artic lakes and streams as gas conduits to the atmosphere: implications for Tundra carbon budget. Science 1991, 251:298–301.
Koerschens, M, Albert, E, Armbruster, M, Barkusky, D, Baumecker, M, Behle‐Schalk, L, Bischoff, R, Cergan, Z, Ellmer, F, Herbst, F, et al. Effect of mineral and organic fertilization on crop yield, nitrogen uptake, carbon and nitrogen balances, as well as soil organic carbon content and dynamics: results from 20 European long‐term field experiments of the twenty‐first century. Arch Agron Soil Sci 2013, 59:1017–1040.
Kortelainen, P, Rantakari, M, Huttunen, JT, Mattsson, T, Alm, J, Juutinen, S, Larmola, T, Silvola, J, Martikainen, PJ. Sediment respiration and lake trophic state are important predictors of large CO2 evasion from small boreal lakes. Glob Chang Biol 2006, 12:1554–1567.
Kutsch, WL, Aubinet, M, Buchmann, N, Smith, P, Osborne, B, Eugster, W, Wattenbach, M, Schrumpf, M, Schulze, ED, Tomelleri, E, et al. The net biome production of full crop rotations in Europe. Agr Ecosyst Environ 2010, 139:336–345.
Maljanen, M, Komulainen, VM, Hytonen, J, Martikainen, P, Laine, J. Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane dynamics in boreal organic agricultural soils with different soil characteristics. Soil Biol Biochem 2004, 36:1801–1808.
McEnroe, NA, Roulet, NT, Moore, TR, Garneau, M. Do pool surface area and depth control CO2 and CH4 fluxes from an ombrotrophic raised bog, James Bay, Canada? J Geophys Res‐Biogeosciences 2009, 114. doi: 10.1029/2007JG000639.
Merbach, W, Deubel, A. Long‐term field experiments ‐ museum relics or scientific challenge? Plant Soil Environ 2008, 54:219–226.
Merbach, W, Kalettka, T, Rudat, C, Augustin, J. Trace gas emissions from riparian areas of small eutrophic inland waters in Northeast Germany. In: Wetlands in Central Europe – Soil Organisms, Soil Ecological Processes and Trace Gas Emissions. Berlin, Heidelberg and New York: Springer‐Verlag; 2002, 235–244.
Metzger, C, Jansson, PE, Lohila, A, Aurela, M, Eickenscheidt, T, Belelli‐Marchesini, L, Dinsmore, KJ, Drewer, J, van Huissteden, J, Droesler, M. CO2 fluxes and ecosystem dynamics at five European treeless peatlands ‐ merging data and process oriented modeling. Biogeosciences 2015, 12:125–146.
Nilsson, M, Sagerfors, J, Buffam, I, Laudon, H, Eriksson, T, Grelle, A, Klemedtsson, L, Weslien, P, Lindroth, A. Contemporary carbon accumulation in a boreal oligotrophic minerogenic mire ‐ a significant sink after accounting for all C‐fluxes. Glob Chang Biol 2008, 14:2317–2332.
Nykanen, H, Vasander, H, Huttunen, JT, Martikainen, PJ. Effect of experimental nitrogen load on methane and nitrous oxide fluxes on ombrotrophic boreal peatland. Plant and Soil 2002, 242:147–155.
Ojala, A, Bellido, JL, Tulonen, T, Kankaala, P, Huotari, J. Carbon gas fluxes from a brown‐water and a clear‐water lake in the boreal zone during a summer with extreme rain events. Limnol Oceanogr 2011, 56:61–76.
Pennock, D, Yates, T, Bedard‐Haughn, A, Phipps, K, Farrell, R, McDougal, R. Landscape controls on N(2)O and CH(4) emissions from freshwater mineral soil wetlands of the Canadian Prairie Pothole region. Geoderma 2010, 155:308–319.
Phillips, R, Beeri, O. The role of hydropedologic vegetation zones in greenhouse gas emissions for agricultural wetland landscapes. Catena 2008, 72:386–394.
Pierobon, E, Bolpagni, R, Bartoli, M, Viaroli, P. Net primary production and seasonal CO2 and CH4 fluxes in a Trapa natans L. meadow. JLim 2010, 69:225–234.
Prescher, A‐K, Gruenwald, T, Bernhofer, C. Land use regulates carbon budgets in eastern Germany: From NEE to NBP. Agr Forest Meteorol 2010, 150:1016–1025.
Roulet, NT, Lafleur, PM, Richard, PJH, Moore, TR, Humphreys, ER, Bubier, J. Contemporary carbon balance and late Holocene carbon accumulation in a northern peatland. Glob Chang Biol 2007, 13:397–411.
Rowson, JG, Gibson, HS, Worrall, F, Ostle, N, Burt, TP, Adamson, JK. The complete carbon budget of a drained peat catchment. Soil Use Manage 2010, 26:261–273.
Sand‐Jensen, K, Staehr, PA. Net heterotrophy in small Danish lakes: a widespread feature over gradients in trophic status and land cover. Ecosystems 2009, 12:336–348.
Schubert, CJ, Lucas, FS, Durisch‐Kaiser, E, Stierli, R, Diem, T, Scheidegger, O, Vazquez, F, Muller, B. Oxidation and emission of methane in a monomictic lake (Rotsee, Switzerland). Aquat Sci 2010, 72:455–466.
Schulze, ED, Luyssaert, S, Ciais, P, Freibauer, A, Janssens, IA, Soussana, JF, Smith, P, Grace, J, Levin, I, Thiruchittampalam, B, et al. Importance of methane and nitrous oxide for Europe`s terrestrial greenhouse‐gas balance. Nat Geosci 2009, 2:842–850.
Soussana, J‐F, Fuhrer, J, Jones, M, Van Amstel, A. The greenhouse gas balance of grasslands in Europe. Agr Ecosyst Environ 2007, 121:1–4.
Sovik, AK, Klove, B. Emission of N2O and CH4 from a constructed wetland in southeastern Norway. Sci Total Environ 2007, 380:28–37.
Stadmark, J, Leonardson, L. Emissions of greenhouse gases from ponds constructed for nitrogen removal. Ecol Eng 2005, 25:542–551.
Stadmark, J, Leonardson, L. Greenhouse gas production in a pond sediment: effects of temperature, itrate, acetate and season. Sci Total Environ 2007, 387:194–205.
Tuittila, ES, Komulainen, VM, Vasander, H, Nykanen, H, Martikainen, PJ, Laine, J. Methane dynamics of a restored cut‐away peatland. Glob Chang Biol 2000, 6:569–581.
Turetsky, MR, Kotowska, A, Bubier, J, Dise, NB, Crill, P, Hornibrook, ERC, Minkkinen, K, Moore, TR, Myers‐Smith, IH, Nykanen, H, et al. A synthesis of methane emissions from 71 northern, temperate, and subtropical wetlands. Glob Chang Biol 2014, 20:2183–2197.
Waddington, JM, Roulet, NT. Carbon balance of a boreal patterned peatland. Glob Chang Biol 2000, 6:87–97.
Waddington, JM, Toth, K, Bourbonniere, R. Dissolved organic carbon export from a cutover and restored peatland. Hydrol Processes 2008, 22:2215–2224.
Weyhenmeyer, CE. Methane emissions from beaver ponds: rates, patterns, and transport mechanisms. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1999, 13:1079–1090.
Cole, JJ, Caraco, NF, Kling, GW, Kratz, TK. Carbon dioxide supersaturation in the surface waters of lakes. Science 1994, 265:1568–1570.
Evans, CD, Chapman, PJ, Clark, JM, Monteith, DT, Cresser, MS. Alternative explanations for rising dissolved organic carbon export from organic soils. Glob Chang Biol 2006, 12:2044–2053.
Evans, CD, Monteith, DT, Cooper, DM. Long‐term increases in surface water dissolved organic carbon: Observations, possible causes and environmental impacts. Environ Pollut 2005, 137:55–71.
Weyhenmeyer, GA. Water chemical changes along a latitudinal gradient in relation to climate and atmospheric deposition. Clim Change 2008, 88:199–208.
Verpoorter, C, Kutser, T, Seekell, DA, Tranvik, LJ. A global inventory of lakes based on high‐resolution satellite imagery. Geophys Res Lett 2014, 41:6396–6402.
Wetzel, RG. Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems. San Diego: Academic Press; 2001.
Molot, LA, Dillon, PJ. Storage of terrestrial carbon in boreal lake sediments and evasion to the atmosphere. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1996, 10:483–492.
Kalettka, T, Rudat, C. Hydrogeomorphic types of glacially created kettle holes in North‐East Germany. Limnologica 2006, 36:54–64.
Euliss, NH Jr, Smith, LM, Wilcox, DA, Brwaine, BA. Linking ecosystem processes with wetland management goals: Charting a course for a sustainable future. Wetlands 2008, 28:553–562.
Avnimelech, Y, Kochva, M, Hargreaves, JA. Sedimentation and resuspension in earthen fish ponds. J World Aquac Soc 1999, 30:401–409.
Crisman, TL, Chapman, LJ, Chapman, CA. Predictors of seasonal oxygen levels in small Florida lakes: the importance of color. Hydrobiologia 1998, 368:149–155.
Knowles, R, Lean, DRS, Chan, YK. Nitrous‐oxide concentrations in lakes ‐ variations with depth and time. Limnol Oceanogr 1981, 26:855–866.
Stallard, RF. Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: coupling weathering and erosion to carbon burial. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1998, 12:231–257.
Hoellein, TJ, Bruesewitz, DA, Richardson, DC. Revisiting Odum (1956): a synthesis of aquatic ecosystem metabolism. Limnol Oceanogr 2013, 58:2089–2100.
Pace, ML, Prairie, YT. Respiration in lakes. In: del Giorgio, PA, Williams, PJ, eds. Respiration in Aquatic Ecosystem. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005, 103–121.
Randerson, JT, Chapin, FS, Harden, JW, Neff, JC, Harmon, ME. Net ecosystem production: a comprehensive measure of net carbon accumulation by ecosystems. Ecol Appl 2002, 12:937–947.
Couwenberg, J, Thiele, A, Tanneberger, F, Augustin, J, Baerisch, S, Dubovik, D, Liashchynskaya, N, Michaelis, D, Minke, M, Skuratovich, A, et al. Assessing greenhouse gas emissions from peatlands using vegetation as a proxy. Hydrobiologia 2011, 674:67–89.
Jeschke, L, Knapp, HD, Succow, M. Moorregionen Europas. In: Succow, M, Joosten, H, eds. Landschaftsökologische Moorkunde. Stuttgart, Germany: Schweizerbart`sche Verlagsbuchhandlung; 2001, 256–316.
Assessment ME. Ecosystem and Human Well‐Being: Synthesis. Washington D.C.: Island Press; 2005, 160.
Canadell, JG, Kirschbaum, MUF, Kurz, WA, Sanz, MJ, Schlamadinger, B, Yamagata, Y. Factoring out natural and indirect human effects on terrestrial carbon sources and sinks. Environ Sci Policy 2007, 10:370–384.
Limpens, J, Berendse, F, Blodau, C, Canadell, JG, Freeman, C, Holden, J, Roulet, N, Rydin, H, Schaepman‐Strub, G. Peatlands and the carbon cycle: from local processes to global implications: a synthesis. Biogeosciences 2008, 5:1475–1491.
Zauft, M, Fell, H, Glasser, F, Rosskopf, N, Zeitz, J. Carbon storage in the peatlands of Mecklenburg‐Western Pomerania, north‐east Germany. Mires and Peat 2010, 6:Article 04.
Parish, F, Sirin, A, Charman, D, Joosten, H, Minayeva, T, Silvius, M, Stringer, L, eds. Peatlands and carbon. In: Assessment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change: Main Report. Kuala Lumpur and Wageningen: Global Envirnment Centre and Wetlands International; 2008, 99–117.
Holden, J, Chapman, PJ, Labadz, JC. Artificial drainage of peatlands: hydrological and hydrochemical process and wetland restoration. Prog Phys Geogr 2004, 28:95–123.
Smith, P. Land use change and soil organic carbon dynamics. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 2008, 81:169–178.
Ramankutty, N, Evan, AT, Monfreda, C, Foley, JA. Farming the planet: 1. Geographic distribution of global agricultural lands in the year 2000. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2008, 22. doi.org/10.1029/2007GB002952.
Sommer, R, Bossio, D. Dynamics and climate change mitigation potential of soil organic carbon sequestration. J Environ Manage 2014, 144:83–87.
Poeplau, C, Don, A. Sensitivity of soil organic carbon stocks and fractions to different land‐use changes across Europe. Geoderma 2013, 192:189–201.
Nieder, R, Richter, J. C and N accumulation in arable soils of West Germany and its influence on the environment: developments 1970 to 1998. J Plant Nutr Soil Sc‐Zeitschrift Fur Pflanzenernahrung Und Bodenkunde 2000, 163:65–72.
Verband Deutscher Landwirtschaftlicher Untersuchungs- und Forschungsanstalten e.V. Humusbilanzierung – Methode zur Beurteilung und Bemessung der Humusversorgung von Ackerland. Standpunkte. Verband Deutscher Landwirtschaftlicher Untersuchungs – und Forschungsanstalten. Speyer: VDLUFAP; 2004, 12.
Powlson, DS, Whitmore, AP, Goulding, KWT. Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change: a critical re‐examination to identify the true and the false. Eur J Soil Sci 2011, 62:42–55.
Smith, P. Do grasslands act as a perpetual sink for carbon? Glob Chang Biol 2014, 20:2708–2711.
Wiesmeier, M, Spoerlein, P, Geuss, U, Hangen, E, Haug, S, Reischl, A, Schilling, B, von Luetzow, M, Koegel‐Knabner, I. Soil organic carbon stocks in southeast Germany (Bavaria) as affected by land use, soil type and sampling depth. Glob Chang Biol 2012, 18:2233–2245.
Leifeld, J, Fuhrer, J. Long‐term management effects on soil organic matter in two cold, high‐elevation grasslands: clues from fractionation and radiocarbon dating. Eur J Soil Sci 2009, 60:230–239.
Canadell, JG, Raupach, MR. Managing forests for climate change mitigation. Science 2008, 320:1456–1457.
Malhi, Y, Baldocchi, DD, Jarvis, PG. The carbon balance of tropical, temperate and boreal forests. Plant Cell Environ 1999, 22:715–740.
Dixon, RK, Brown, S, Houghton, RA, Solomon, AM, Trexler, MC, Wisniewski, J. Carbon pools and fluxes of global forest ecosystem. Science 1994, 263:185–190.
Ping, CL, Michaelson, GJ, Kane, ES, Packee, EC, Stiles, CA, Swanson, DK, Zaman, ND. Carbon stores and biogeochemical properties of soils under Black Spruce Forest, Alaska. Soil Sci Soc Am J 2010, 74:969–978.
Knohl, A, Schulze, ED, Kolle, O, Buchmann, N. Large carbon uptake by an unmanaged 250‐year‐old deciduous forest in Central Germany. Agr Forest Meteorol 2003, 118:151–167.
Zacharias, S, Bogena, H, Samaniego, L, Mauder, M, Fuss, R, Putz, T, Frenzel, M, Schwank, M, Baessler, C, Butterbach‐Bahl, K, et al. A network of terrestrial environmental observatories in Germany. Vadose Zone J 2011, 10:955–973.
Gerke, HH, Koszinski, S, Kalettka, T, Sommer, M. Structures and hydrologic function of soil landscapes with kettle holes using an integrated hydropedological approach. J Hydrol 2010, 393:123–132.
Deumlich, D, Schmidt, R, Sommer, M. A multiscale soil‐landform relationship in the glacial‐drift area based on digital terrain analysis and soil attributes. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 2010, 173:843–851.
Sommer, M, Gerke, HH, Deumlich, D. Modelling soil landscape genesis: a "time split" approach for hummocky agricultural landscapes. Geoderma 2008, 145:480–493.
Rieckh, H, Gerke, HH, Siemens, J, Sommer, M. Water and dissolved carbon fluxes in an eroding soil landscape depending on terrain position. Vadose Zone J 2014, 13. doi:10.2136/vzj2013.10.0173.
van der Kamp, G, Hayashi, M. Groundwater‐wetland ecosystem interaction in the semiarid glaciated plains of North America. Hydrogeol J 2009, 17:203–214.
Strayer, DL, Ewing, HA, Bigelow, S. What kind of spatial and temporal details are required in models of heterogenous systems? Oikos 2003, 102:654–662.
Fletcher, SEM, Tans, PP, Bruhwiler, LM, Miller, JB, Heimann, M. CH4 sources estimated from atmospheric observations of CH4 and its C‐13/C‐12 isotopic ratios: 2. Inverse modeling of CH4 fluxes from geographical regions. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2004, 18. doi: 10.1029/2004GB002224.
Schrier‐Uijl, AP, Veraart, AJ, Leffelaar, PA, Berendse, F, Veenendaal, EM. Release of CO2 and CH4 from lakes and drainage ditches in temperate wetlands. Biogeochemistry 2011, 102:265–279.
Baird, AJ, Belyea, LR, Morris, PJ. Upscaling of peatland‐atmosphere fluxes of methane: small‐scale heterogeneity in process rates and the pitfalls of “Bucket‐and‐Slab” models. In: Baird, AJ, Belyea, LR, Comas, X, Reeve, AS, Slater, LD, eds. Carbon Cycling in Northern Peatland, vol. 184. American Geophysical Union. Washington, DC: John Wiley %26 Sons; 2009, 37–53.
Downing, JA. Emerging global role of small lakes and ponds: little things mean a lot. Limnetica 2010, 29:9–23.
Schindler, DE, Scheuerell, MD. Habitat coupling in lake ecosystems. Oikos 2002, 98:177–189.
Sayer, CD. Conservation of aquatic landscapes: ponds, lakes, and rivers as integrated systems. WIREs Water 2014, 1:573–585.
Winslow, LA, Read, JS, Hansen, GJA, Hanson, PC. Small lakes show muted climate change signal in deepwater temperatures. Geophys Res Lett 2015, 42:355–361.
Jansen, B, Kalbitz, K, McDowell, WH. Dissolved organic matter: linking soils and aquatic systems. Vadose Zone J 2014, 13. doi: 10.2136/vzj2014.05.0051

Access to this WIREs title is by subscription only.

Recommend to Your
Librarian Now!

The latest WIREs articles in your inbox

Sign Up for Article Alerts