How to cite this WIREs title:
WIREs Energy Environ.

Impact Factor: 3.297

Addressing the risks of induced seismicity in subsurface energy operations

Overview

Joanna Faure Walker, Haroun Mahgerefteh, Alberto Striolo, Richard T.J. Porter

Published Online: Sep 03 2018

DOI: 10.1002/wene.324

Full article on Wiley Online Library: HTML PDF

Can't access this content? Tell your librarian.

Shale gas could help address the insatiable global demand for energy. However, in addition to risks of environmental pollution, the risk of induced seismicity during the hydraulic fracturing process is often considered as the major showstopper in the public acceptability of shale gas as an alternative source of fossil fuel. Other types of subsurface energy development have also demonstrated similar induced seismicity risks. This article presents an interdisciplinary review of notable cases of suspected induced seismicity relating to subsurface energy operations, covering operations for hydraulic fracturing, wastewater injection, conventional gas extraction, enhanced geothermal systems and water impoundment. Possible causal mechanisms of induced seismicity are described and illustrated, then methods to mitigate induced seismicity, encompassing regulations, including so‐called traffic light systems, monitoring and assessment, and numerical modeling approaches for predicting the occurrence of induced seismicity are outlined. Issues relating to public perception of energy technologies in regards to induced seismicity potential are also discussed. This article is categorized under: Photovoltaics > Climate and Environment Fossil Fuels > Climate and Environment Energy Infrastructure > Economics and Policy Energy and Development > Systems and Infrastructure

Physical mechanisms that could induce seismicity: (a) and (b) pore pressure (p) increase via a diffusional process, leads to a reduction in the effective normal stress (σ) on preexisting faults allowing shear stress (τ) to overcome frictional resistance to fault sliding; (c) in hydraulic fracturing (1) injection well drilled directly into fault, (2) hydraulic fracture directly intersects fault, (3) fluid flow through existing fractures, (4) through more permeable rock strata above or below shale formations, or through bedding planes that interface the rock strata; (d) changes in the stress field brought about by changes in volume or mass loading transmitted to the fault poroelastically (after (Davies et al., ; Grigoli et al., ; Schultz et al., )

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Annual number of M_L ≥ 3 earthquakes in Central United States (the red cluster in the Centre of the map highlights earthquakes in Oklahoma, 2009–2016) reproduced with permission from (induced seismicity, 2017), Copyright 2017 USGS

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Worldwide induced and triggered seismic events with recorded magnitude ≥1.5 that have been linked to industrial activities. The catalogue (source: http://inducedearthquakes.org/) was updated to include the highest magnitude event recorded at the Pohang geothermal site in South Korea (Grigoli et al., 2018). Several categories were omitted, namely construction, deep penetrating bombs, nuclear explosions, research and coal bed methane. Categories of oil and gas and conventional oil and gas were merged, and oil and gas/waste fluid injection was merged with waste fluid disposal to form the category waste fluid injection. The HiQuake database (Foulger et al., ) includes all earthquake sequences proposed on scientific grounds to have been human‐induced regardless of credibility

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Simulated evolution of seismicity in a distance versus time plot (left) and a numerical seismicity rate plot (right) using the approach of Dinske (). During the simulation, 18,682 seismic events were recorded

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Pore pressure profiles from numerically solving the diffusion equation as a function of time. Injection stop time is at 400,000 seconds

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Pore pressure profiles from numerically solving the diffusion equation as a function of distance to source point

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Approximated and measured injection pressure for the Basel EGS (Dinske, ; Häring et al., )

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Evolution of recorded seismicity during the Basel EGS stimulation as a function of the distance from the well shoe casing versus time (data from Kraft and Deichmann ())

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

A Mohr diagram representation of critical stress state of a fault plane and pore pressure decreasing the effective normal stress. Mohr circle (1) shows the original stress state before pore pressure increase. Pore pressure increase (represented by the blue arrow) leads to a reduction in the compressive stresses, σ₁ and σ₃, so the more circle shifts left to a new position represented by Mohr circle (2). If the failure envelope, shown by the dashed line and controlled by the coefficient of friction μ and cohesion c, is intersected by the Mohr circle then shear failure occurs and a seismic event is induced

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

Illustration of the relative orientation of stress field and fault direction, with the correspondent expected coefficient of friction and likelihood of slip (after StatesFirst ())

[ Normal View | Magnified View ]

References

Albano,, M., Polcari,, M., Bignami,, C., Moro,, M., Saroli,, M., & Stramondo,, S. (2017). Did anthropogenic activities trigger the 3 April 2017 M^w 6.5 Botswana earthquake? Remote Sensing, 9(10), 1028. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9101028
Altmann,, J. B. (2010). Poroelastic effects in reservoir modelling. (Doctoral thesis). Karlsruhe Institute of Technology). Retrieved from https://publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000021248
Andersson‐Hudson,, J., Knight,, W., & Humphrey,, M. (2016). Exploring support for shale gas extraction in the United Kingdom. Energy Policy, 98, 582–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.09.042
Atkinson,, G. M., Eaton,, D. W., Ghofrani,, H., Walker,, D., Cheadle,, B., Schultz,, R., … Kao,, H. (2016). Hydraulic fracturing and induced seismicity in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. Seismological Research Letters, 87, 631–647. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220150263
Bachmann,, C. E., Wiemer,, S., Goertz‐Allman,, B. P., & Woessner,, J. (2012). Influence of pore‐pressure on the event‐size distribution of induced earthquakes. Geophysical Research Letters, 39, L09302.
Baisch,, S., Voros,, R., Rothert,, E., Stang,, H., Jung,, R., & Schellschmidt,, R. (2010). A numerical model for fluid injection induced seismicity at Soult‐Sous‐Forets. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 47, 405–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2009.10.001
Banks,, E. (2006). Catastrophic risk: Analysis and management. Chichester, England: Wiley Finance.
Bendall,, B., Love,, D., Hough,, P., Malavazos,, M., Long,, A., & Pepicelli,, D. (2012, January 30–February 1). Towards understanding induced seismicity. Paper in 37th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering. Stanford University, Stanford, California, SGP‐TR‐194.
Bessason,, B., Ólafsson,, E. H., Gunnarsson,, G., Flóvenz,, Ó. G., Jakobsdóttir,, S. S., Björnsson,, S., & Árnadóttir,, Th. (2012). Work procedures due to induced seismicity in geothermal systems (Report 2012–24). Reykjavík Energy, Reykjavík, Iceland (in Icelandic), 118 pp.
Bohnhoff,, M., Malin,, P., ter Heege,, J., Delflandre,, J. P., & Sicking,, C. (2018). Suggested best practice for seismic monitoring and characterization of non‐conventional reservoirs. First Break, 36, 59–64.
Bommer,, J. J., Crowley,, H., & Pinho,, R. (2015). A risk‐mitigation approach to the management of induced seismicity. Journal of Seismology, 19, 623–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-015-9478-z
Bommer,, J. J., Oates,, S., Cepeda,, J. M., Lindolm,, C., Bird,, J., Torres,, R., … Rivas,, J. (2006). Control of hazard due to seismicity induced by a hot fractured rock geothermal project. Engineering Geology, 83(4), 287–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.11.002
Byerlee,, J. D. (1987). Friction of rocks. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 116, 615–626.
Cesca,, S., Dost,, B., & Oth,, A. (2013). Preface to the special issue “triggered and induced seismicity: Probabilities and discrimination”. Journal of Seismology, 17, 1–4.
Cesca,, S., & Grigoli,, F. (2015). Full waveforms seismological advances for microseismic monitoring. Advances in Geophysics, 56, 169–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agph.2014.12.002
Clarke,, H., Eisner,, L., Styles,, P., & Turner,, P. (2014). Felt seismicity associated with shale gas hydraulic fracturing: The first documented example in Europe. Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 8308–8314. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL062047
Davey,, E. (2012, December 13). Written ministerial statement by Edward Davey: Exploration for shale gas. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/written-ministerial-statement-by-edward-davey-exploration-for-shale-gas
Davies,, R. J., Foulger,, G., Bindley,, A., & Styles,, P. (2013). Induced seismicity and hydraulic fracturing for the recovery of hydrocarbons. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 45, 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2013.03.016
de Pater,, C. J., & Baisch,, S. (2011). Geomechanical study of Bowland shale seismicity (Synthesis Report, Nov. 2). Cuadrilla Resources, Staffordshire, UK.
Deng,, K., Zhou,, S., Wang,, R., Robinson,, R., Zhao,, C., & Cheng,, W. (2010). Evidence that the 2008 M_W 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake could not have been induced by the Zipingpu reservoir. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 100(5B), 2805–2814. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120090222
Dinske,, C. (2010). Interpretation of fluid‐induced seismicity at geothermal and hydrocarbon reservoirs of basel and cotton valley. (Doctoral Thesis). Free University of Berlin. Retrieved from http://www.diss.fu-berlin.de/diss/receive/FUDISS_thesis_000000023148
EADD (Environment Agency Decision Document). (2014). EPR/AB3101MW.
Edwards,, B., & Douglas,, J. (2014). Magnitude scaling of induced earthquakes. Geothermics, 52, 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2013.09.012
EIA (Energy Information Administration) & ARI (Advanced Resources International). (2013). World shale gas and shale oil resource assessment. Washington, DC: EIA and ARI. Retrieved from http://www.adv-res.com/pdf/A_EIA_ARI_2013%20World%20Shale%20Gas%20and%20Shale%20Oil%20Resource%20Assessment.pdf
Ellsworth,, W. L. (2013). Injection‐induced earthquakes. Science, 341, 1225942. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1225942
Fault Slip Potential. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://scits.stanford.edu/fault-slip-potential
Fischer,, T., & Guest,, A. (2011). Shear and tensile earthquakes caused by fluid injection. Geophysical Research Letters, 38, L05307. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL045447
Foulger,, G. R., Wilson,, M. P., Gluyas,, J. G., Julian,, B. R., & Davies,, R. J. (2018). Global review of human‐induced earthquakes. Earth‐Science Reviews, 178, 438–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.07.008
Ge,, S., Liu,, M., Lu,, M., Godt,, J. W., & Luo,, G. (2009). Did the Zipingpu reservoir trigger the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake? Geophysical Research Letters, 36, L20315. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040349
Giardini,, D. (2009). Geothermal quake risks must be faced. Nature, 462, 848–849. https://doi.org/10.1038/462848a
Gischig,, V., Wiemer,, S., & Alcolea,, A. (2014). Balancing reservoir creation and seismic hazard in enhanced geothermal systems. Geophysical Journal International, 198, 1585–1598. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggu221
Gischig,, V. S., & Wiemer,, S. (2013). A stochastic model for induced seismicity based on non‐linear pressure diffusion and irreversible permeability enhancement. Geophysical Journal International, 194(2), 1229–1249. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggt164
Goertz‐Allman,, B. P., & Wiemer,, S. (2013). Geomechanical modelling of induced seismicity source parameters and implications for seismic hazard assessment. Geophysics, 78, KS25–KS39. https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2012-0102.1
Graham,, J. D., Rupp,, J. A., & Schenk,, O. (2015). Unconventional gas development in the USA: Exploring risk perception issues. Risk Analysis, 35(10), 1770–1788. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12512
Green,, C. A., Styles,, P., & Baptie,, B. J. (2012). Preese hall shale gas fracturing: Review and recommendations for induced seismic mitigation. London, England: Department of Energy and Climate Change.
Grigoli,, F., Cesca,, S., Priolo,, E., Rinaldi,, A. P., Clinton,, J. F., Stabile,, T. A., … Dahm,, T. (2017). Current challenges in monitoring, discriminating and management of induced seismicity related to underground industrial activities: A European perspective. Reviews of Geophysics, 55, 310–340. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016RG000542
Grigoli,, F., Cesca,, S., Rinaldi,, A. P., Manconi,, A., López‐Comino,, Clinton,, J. F., … Wiemar,, S. (2018). The November 2017 MW 5.5 Pohang earthquake: A possible case of induced seismicity in South Korea. Science, 360, 1003–1006. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat2010
Grigoli,, F., Scarabello,, L., Bŏse,, M., Weber,, B., & Wiemer,, S. (2018). Pick‐ and waveform‐based techniques for real‐time detection of induced seismicity. Geophysical Journal International, 213, 868–884. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggy019
Häring,, M. O., Schanz,, U., Ladner,, F., & Dyer,, B. C. (2008). Characterisation of the Basel 1 enhanced geothermal system. Geothermics, 37, 489–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2008.06.002
Howell,, B. F., Jr. (1981). On the saturation of earthquake magnitude. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 71, 1401–1422.
Hummel,, N., & Shapiro,, S. A. (2013). Nonlinear diffusion‐based interpretation of induced microseismicity: A Barnett shale hydraulic fracturing case study. Geophysics, 78, B211–B226. https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2012-0242.1
Induced Seismicity. (2017, October 13). Retrieved from https://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/induced/
Juncu,, D., Árnadóttir,, T., Geirsson,, H., Guðmundsson,, G. B., Lund,, B., Gunnarsson,, G., … Michalczewska,, K. (2018). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.03.019
Kao,, H., Eaton,, D.W., Atkinson,, G.M., Maxwell,, S., & Babaie Mahani,, A. (2016). Technical meeting on the traffic light protocols (TLP) for induced seismicity: Summary and recommendations. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 8075. https://doi.org/10.4095/299002
Keranen,, K. W., & Weingarten,, M. (2018). Induced seismicity. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary, 46, 149–174. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev‐earth‐082517‐010054
Kim,, K.‐H., Ree,, J.‐H., Kim,, Y., Kim,, S., Kang,, S. Y., & Seo,, W. (2018). Assessing whether the 2017 M^W 5.4 Pohang earthquake in South Korea was an induced event. Science, 360, 1007–1009. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat6081
Klose,, C. D. (2010). Human‐triggered earthquakes and their impacts on human security, achieving environmental security: Ecosystem services and human welfare. In P. H. Liotta,, W.G. Kepner, J.M. Lancaster & D.A. Mouat. (Eds.), NATO science for peace and security series—E: Human and societal dyanamics (Vol. 69, pp. 13–19). Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press.
Kraft,, T., & Deichmann,, N. (2014). High‐precision relocation and focal mechanism of the injection‐induced seismicity at the Basel EGS. Geothermics, 52, 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL051480
Langenbruch,, C., & Zoback,, M. D. (2016). How will induced seismicity in Oklahoma respond to decreased saltwater injection rates? Science Advances, 2(11), e1601542. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1601542
Lei,, X., Huang,, D., Su,, J., Wang,, X., Wang,, H., Guo,, X., & Fu,, H. (2017). Fault reactivation and earthquakes with magnitudes of up to mw 4.7 induced by shale‐gas hydraulic fracturing in Sichuan Basin, China. Scientific Reports, 7, 7971. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-08557-y
Li,, T., Zhou,, X., & Li,, H. (2013, May 13–16). Environmental impacts of shale gas development in China and recommendations on management of their environmental impact assessment. Paper presented at the 33rd Annual Meeting of the International Association for Impact Assessment, Calgary.
Majer,, E., Nelson,, J., Robertson‐Tai,, A., Savy,, J., & Wong,, I. (2011), Protocol for addressing induced seismicity associated with enhanced geothermal systems. Retrieved from http://ww1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/pdfs/egs‐is‐protocol‐final‐draft‐20110531.pdf
Majer,, E. L., Baria,, R., Stark,, M., Oates,, S., Bommer,, J., Smith,, B., & Asanuma,, H. (2007). Induced seismicity associated with enhanced geothermal systems. Geothermics, 36, 185–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2007.03.003
Maxwell,, S. C. (2013). Unintentional seismicity induced by hydraulic fracturing. GSEG Recorder, October, 40–49.
McComas,, K. A., Lu,, H., Keranen,, K. M., Furtney,, M. A., & Song,, H. (2016). Public perceptions and acceptance of induced earthquakes related to energy development. Energy Policy, 99, 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.09.026
McGarr,, A. (2014). Maximum magnitude earthquakes induced by fluid injection. Journal of Geophysical Research. Solid Earth, 119, 1008–1019.
McGarr,, A., Simpson,, D., & Seeber,, L. (2002). Case histories of induced and triggered seismicity. In W. Lee,, P. Jennings,, C. Kisslinger,, & H. Kanamori, (Eds.), International handbook of earthquake and engineering seismology (pp. 647–661). Waltham, MA: Academic Press.
Mertz,, E., & Ramsay,, C. (2016). St. Albert feels tremors from earthquake near Fox Creek. Global News, 12 January [Online]. Retrieved from https://globalnews.ca/news/2449048/earthquake-reported-in-northern-alberta-town/
Mignan,, A., Broccardo,, M., Wiemer,, S., & Giardini,, D. (2017). Induced seismicity closed‐form traffic light system for actuarial decision‐making during deep fluid injections. Scientific Reports, 7, 13607.
Muntendam‐Bos,, A. G., Roest,, J. P. A., & de Waal,, H. A. (2017). The effect of imposed production measures on gas extraction induced seismic risk. Netherlands Journal of Geosciences, 96(5), s271–s278. https://doi.org/10.1017/njg.2017.29
O`Donnell,, M. C., Gilfillan,, S. M. V., Eldmann,, K., & McDermott,, C. I. (2018). Wastewater from hydraulic fracturing in the UK: Assessing the viability and cost of management. Environmental Science: Water Research %26 Technology, 4, 325–335. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EW00474E
O`Hara,, S., Humphrey,, M., Andersson‐Hudson,, J., & KnightPublic,, W. (2015). Perception of shale gas extraction in the UK: Two years on from the Balcombe protests. Report of the Nottingham tracker survey on public perception of shale gas extraction. Nottingham, England: University of Nottingham.
Park,, S., Xie,, L., Kim,, K., Kwon,, S., Min,, K., Choi,, J., … Song,, Y. (2017). First hydraulic stimulation in fractured geothermal reservoir in Pohang PX‐2 well. Procedia Engineering, 191, 829–837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.05.250
Pesicek,, J. D., Child,, D., Artman,, B., & Cieślik,, K. (2014). Picking versus stacking in a modern microearthquake location: Comparison of results from a surface passive seismic monitoring array in Oklahoma. Geophysics, 79(6), KS61–KS68. https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2013-0404.1
Petersen,, M. D., Mueller,, C. S., Moschetti,, M. P., Hoover,, S. M., Rukstales,, K. S., McNamara,, D. E., … Cochran,, E. S. (2018). 2018 one‐year seismic hazard forecast for the central and eastern United States from induced and natural earthquakes. Seismological Research Letters, 89, 1049–1061. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220180005
Rutqvist,, J. (2011). Status of the TOUGH‐FLAC simulator and recent applications related to coupled fluid flow and crustal deformations. Computers %26 Geosciences, 37, 739–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2010.08.006
Schultz,, R., Atkinson,, G., Eaton,, D. W., Gu,, Y. G., & Kao,, H. (2018). Hydraulic fracturing volume is associated with induced earthquake productivity in the Duvernay play. Science, 359, 304–308. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao0159
Schultz,, R., Wang,, R., Gu,, Y. J., Haug,, K., & Atkinson,, G. (2017). A seismological overview of the induced earthquakes in the Duvernay play near Fox Creek, Alberta. Journal of Geophysical Research. Solid Earth, 122, 492–505. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013570
Segall,, P., & Lu,, S. (2015). Injection‐induced seismicity: Poroelastic and earthquake nucleation effects. Journal of Geophysical Research. Solid Earth, 120, 5082–5103. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JB012060
Shapiro,, S. A., Audigane,, P., & Royer,, J. J. (1999). Large‐scale in situ permeability tensor of rocks from induced microseismicity. Geophysical Journal International, 137, 207–213. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.1999.00781.x
Shapiro,, S. A., & Dinske,, C. (2009). Fluid‐induced seismicity: Pressure diffusion and hydraulic fracturing. Geophysical Prospecting, 57, 301–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.2008.00770.x
Shapiro,, S. A., Dinske,, C., & Kummerow,, J. (2007). Probability of a given‐magnitude earthquake induced by a fluid injection. Geophysical Research Letters, 34, 22. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031615
StatesFirst. (2015). Potential injection‐induced seismicity associated with oil %26 gas development: A primer on technical and regulatory considerations informing risk management and mitigation. StatesFirst induced seismicity by injection work group (ISWG), Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission and the Ground Water Protection Council.
Stork,, A. L., Verdon,, J. P., & Kendall,, J. M. (2014). Assessing the effect of velocity model accuracy on microseismic interpretation at the in Salah carbon capture and storage site. Energy Procedia, 63, 4385–4393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.11.473
Suckale,, J., & Grünthal,, G. (2009). Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Model for Vanuatu. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 99(4), 2108–2126.
Tao,, W., Masterlark,, T., Shen,, Z. K., & Ronchin,, E. (2015). Impoundment of the Zipingpu reservoir and triggering of the 2008 M_W 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake, China. Journal of Geophysical Research. Solid Earth, 120, 7033–7047. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JB011766
TerHeege,, J. (2016). Recent shale developments in the Netherlands. Presentation at The Shale Exchange, Pittsburgh, USA, 10 October. Retrieved from http://www.m4shalegas.eu/downloads/J.%20TerHeege%20-%20M4ShaleGas%20-%20Recent%20shale%20developments%20in%20the%20Netherlands%20-%2010-2016.pdf
Trutnevyte,, E., & Ejderyan,, O. (2017). Managing geoenergy‐induced seismicity with society. Journal of Risk Research, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2017.1304979
Urban,, K. (2017, April 23–28). Reporting from the Iceland deep drilling project. Paper presented at 19th EGU general assembly, EGU2017. Vienna, Austria.
van der Voort,, N., & Vanclay,, F. (2015). Social impacts of earthquakes caused by gas extraction in the province of Groningen, the Netherlands. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 50, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.08.008
van Thienen‐Visser,, K., & Breunese,, J. N. (2015). Induced seismicity of the Groningen gas field: History and recent developments. The Leading Edge, 34, 664–671. https://doi.org/10.1190/tle34060664.1
Verdon,, J. P., Kendall,, J. M., Hicks,, S. P., & Hill,, P. (2017). Using beamforming to maximise the detection capability of small sparse seismometer arrays deployed to monitor oil field activities. Geophysical Prospecting, 65, 1582–1596. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2478.12498
Vlek,, C. (2018). Induced earthquakes from long‐term gas extraction in Groningen, the Netherlands: Statistical analysis and prognosis for acceptable‐risk regulation. Risk Analysis, 38, 1455–1473. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12967
Wald,, D. J., Quitoriano,, V., Heaton,, T. H., & Kanamori,, H. (1999). Relationship between peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity, and modified Mercalli intensity in California. Earthquake Spectra, 15(3), 557–564. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.1586058
Wald,, D. J., Worden,, C. B., Lin,, K. W., & Pankow,, K. (2005). ShakeMap manual: technical manual, user`s guide, and software guide. US Geological Survey, Techniques and Methods 12‐A1, 132 pp. http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/2005/12A01/
Wallquist,, L., Visschers,, V. H. M., & Siegrist,, M. (2009). Lay concepts on CCS deployment in Switzerland based on qualitative interviews. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas, 3, 652–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2009.03.005
Warpinski,, N. R., Du,, J., & Zimmer,, U. (2012). Measurements of hydraulic‐fracture‐induced seismicity in gas shales. SPE, 151597. https://doi.org/10.2118/151597-MS
Warpinski,, N. R., Mayerhofer,, M., Agarwal,, K., & Du,, J. (2013). Hydraulic‐fracture geomechanics and microseismic‐source mechanism. SPE Journal, 18(4) 766–780. https://doi.org/10.2118/158935-PA
Weingarten,, M., Ge,, S., Godt,, J. W., Bekins,, B. A., & Rubinstein,, J. L. (2015). High‐rate injection is associated with the increase in U.S. mid‐continent seismicity. Science, 348, 1336–1340. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab1345
Wells,, D. L., & Coppersmith,, K. J. (1994). New empirical relationships among magnitude, rupture length, rupture width, rupture area, and surface displacement. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 84, 974–1002.
Wiemer,, S., Kraft,, T., Trutnevyte,, E., & Phillipe,, R. (2017). “Good practice” guide for managing induced seismicity in deep geothermal energy projects in Switzerland (p. 2017). Zurich, Switzerland: Swiss Seismological Service. https://doi.org/10.12686/a5
Williams,, L., Macnaghten,, P., Davies,, R., & Curtis,, S. (2017). Framing ‘fracking’: Exploring public perceptions of hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom. Public Understanding of Science, 26, 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662515595159
White,, J. A., & Foxall,, W. (2016). Assessing induced seismicity risk at CO2 storage projects: Recent progress and remaining challenges. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 49, 413–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iggc.2016.03.021
Zhang,, H., Eaton,, D. W., Li,, G., Liu,, Y., & Harrington,, R. M. (2016). Discriminating induced seismicity from natural earthquakes using moment tensors and source spectra. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 121, 972–993. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JB012603

Access to this WIREs title is by subscription only.

Recommend to Your
Librarian Now!

The latest WIREs articles in your inbox

Sign Up for Article Alerts