Reputational concerns for appearing “smart” to others can drive students to focus on performance goals rather than learning goals, irrespective of their mindset.

Combining non‐invasive brain stimulation with functional neuroimaging offers mechanistic insights into brain network communication, circuit‐level descriptions of neuropathology, and an opportunity for personalized treatment development.

Pathways into the Referential Problem Space. Apes and humans display tool‐using competencies by the end of the first year of life. Humans (top pathway) are motorically slow to develop throughout infancy and subjected to culturally specific patterns of restraint. In these conditions of endogenous and exogenous constraint, children apply their developing tool‐using skills to the manipulation of their caregivers, including the use of pointing. In contrast, great apes in the wild (bottom pathway) develop locomotor independence much earlier, before the onset of tool‐using competency, and therefore almost never encounter a situation in which they can only access some entity with the help of another agent. Captive apes (middle two pathways), by virtue of their ubiquitous containment by cash mesh and cage bars, are placed into the Referential Problem Space, and in this ecological context, pointing emerges.